An Overview of the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan

If you keep up with world news and current events, you may be aware of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan. This conflict made international news during the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War in 2020. It was in the headlines again in 2023 after Azerbaijan launched a major military offensive there is.  

However, the conflict over this region in the South Caucasus is not a recent development. It dates to the dissolution of the Russian Empire in the early 20th century. Let’s look at the roots of this conflict, from its beginnings following the First World War to Soviet rule under the newly formed USSR between the 1920s and 1980s. 

The Karabakh Council 

In 1918, shortly after the fall of the Russian Empire, Armenians living in the Nagorno-Karabakh region formed the Karabakh Council, an unrecognized government for the region. The conflict over the region began at this time, as the First Republic of Armenia and the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic both wanted control of Nagorno-Karabakh. 

This council was formed amidst the geopolitical upheaval following Armenia’s acceptance of the Treaty of Batum and its subsequent surrender to the Ottoman Empire in July 1918. Azerbaijani-Ottoman forces seized the Nagorno-Karabakh city of Shushi in September of that year, but an Armenian resistance prevented them from taking the city. 

Armenian Signs Provisional Accord Following Azerbaijani Attacks 

The dynamics of the region shifted on October 30, 1918, because of the Armistice of Mudros. This forced Ottoman forces to withdraw from the South Caucasus. Subsequently, the British assisted the vacating Ottoman troops in Shushi. The British governor of Baku, Azerbaijan appointed Khosrov bey Sultanov as the Governor-General of Karabakh and Zangezur—even though neither of these regions was under the complete control of Azerbaijan. 

The Karabakh assembly refused to yield to Azerbaijani authority, which led to a tragic event. On June 5, 1919, Sultan bey Sultanov (Governor-General Sultanov’s brother) led 2,000 mounted Kurdish troops into Armenian villages. They looted homes and killed approximately 600 Armenians. 

In the aftermath of this tragedy, the Karabakh Council reluctantly signed a provisional accord with the Azerbaijani government on August 22, 1919, while awaiting a final determination of their status at the Paris Peace Conference. The agreement aimed to secure Armenian cultural autonomy, establish a council with equal representation from both communities, and delineate the territorial scope of Azerbaijani garrisons. 

British Troops Leave Nagorno-Karabakh 

With the ink of the accord barely dry, the British swiftly abandoned the region. This paved the way for Azerbaijan to exert its influence over Karabakh, breaching the boundaries outlined in the provisional agreement. Although the agreement explicitly required two-thirds consent from the six-member council for any Azerbaijani military acts, Azerbaijan violated the pact in November 1919. Azerbaijani forces were deployed across the region in preparation for an incursion into the Armenian-controlled Zangezur.  

This breach of the agreement heightened tensions between the two nations. It illustrated the challenges of translating diplomatic agreements into tangible actions on the ground. It also set the stage for future complexities in the Karabakh-Nagorno region. 

Escalation of Conflict After the Paris Peace Conference 

During deliberations over the South Caucasus territorial disputes at the Paris Peace Conference, Sultanov delivered an ultimatum to the Karabakh Council on February 19, 1920, demanding that they consent to Azerbaijan’s annexation of the region. Between February 28 and March 4, the Eight Assembly of Armenians of Karabakh convened. They voiced their dissatisfaction with the Azerbaijani administration, warning of potential countermeasures if their survival was threatened.  

The Soviet Union was also beginning to enter this territory at this time. Despite the imminent arrival of the Red Army, Azerbaijan shifted significant forces into Karabakh, including 5,000 soldiers, six field guns, and eight mountain guns. 

In the ensuing upheaval, Armenian forces unsuccessfully attempted to disarm Azerbaijani garrisons in Shushi and Khankend, leading to a devastating pogrom against Armenians in Shushi. The Armenian quarter was pillaged and razed, and its inhabitants were expelled. The exact number of deaths is not certain but estimates range from between 500 and 20,000. To reinforce their presence in Shushi, the Azerbaijani army navigated the Askeran pass, capturing Askeran and securing access to Mountainous Karabakh. 

Azerbaijani forces reclaimed Armenian villages in the northern regions of Karabakh. After Azerbaijan became part of the Soviet Union, the 11th Army of Soviet Russia entered Karabakh, vanquishing Armenian forces and permanently dismantling the Karabakh Council. The Soviets took control of Nagorno-Karabakh in 1921 and decided to form the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO), which was a part of Soviet Azerbaijan. 

Soviet Rule and Discrimination  

During the Soviet era, Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh faced severe discrimination. Soviet Azerbaijani authorities suppressed Armenian culture, pressuring Armenians to leave while encouraging the settlement of Azerbaijanis from other regions. The 1979 census recorded 160,841 Azerbaijanis in Armenia and 352,410 Armenians in Azerbaijan outside of Nagorno-Karabakh. A decade on, a new census showed a major decline in both minority groups, with just 84,860 Azerbaijanis in Armenia and 245,045 Armenians in Azerbaijan outside of the disputed region. 

Teaching Armenian history was banned during this time, and Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh were persecuted for educational choices and sports affiliations. Gorbachev’s reforms and the 1988 referendum for union with Soviet Armenia led to anti-Armenian pogroms throughout Azerbaijan, marking a prelude to the Nagorno-Karabakh War amid the dissolution of the Soviet Union.